Land Revenue System in India (During British Rule)

1. Background

Land revenue was the main source of income for the British in India. Almost 50%–60% of revenue came from land tax. Different systems were introduced in different regions depending on local conditions, experiments, and political needs.

2. Major Land Revenue Systems

(A) Permanent Settlement (1793)

Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa. Features: Revenue fixed permanently between the Company and Zamindars. Zamindars became owners of land → peasants became tenants. If zamindars failed to pay, land was auctioned. Pros: Stability of revenue, rise of a new landlord class loyal to British. Cons: Peasants exploited (high rents, eviction). No incentive for zamindars to improve agriculture. Led to pauperisation of peasants.

(B) Ryotwari System (1792 onwards)

Introduced by Thomas Munro and Alexander Read in Madras, Bombay, Assam, parts of Bengal. Features: Direct settlement with peasants (ryots). Peasant recognized as owner of land if revenue paid. Revenue revised periodically (not permanent). 50% of produce in dry areas, 60% in irrigated areas. Pros: No middlemen (zamindars removed). Cons: Heavy revenue demand, frequent revisions → insecurity for peasants.

(C) Mahalwari System (1822)

Introduced by Holt Mackenzie → modified by William Bentinck. Implemented in North-West Provinces, Punjab, Central India. Features: Settlement made with the village community (mahal). Entire village responsible for revenue. Periodic revision. Pros: Reflected traditional collective ownership. Cons: Still heavy demand, peasants in debt, moneylenders gained control.

3. Other Minor Systems

Talukdari System (Awadh): Revenue collected through hereditary chiefs (talukdars). Jagirdari System (Rajput states): Continuation of Mughal-era jagirs under British supervision.

4. Impact of Land Revenue Systems

Agriculture Commercialisation: Cash crops (indigo, cotton, opium) grown for British industries. Peasant Distress: Famines, poverty, indebtedness, loss of land. Rise of Zamindars & Moneylenders: Rural elite exploited peasants. Decline of Traditional Village Economy. Peasant Revolts: Indigo revolt, Deccan riots, etc.